FOREX UNDERCAPITALIZATION RISK

UNDERCAPITALIZATION RISK
Insufficient initial capital invested into trade is the first mistake made by a
majority of newcomers, and it often turns out to be their last mistake.
I have witnessed many cases of full loss of capital invested into currency
operations during the first month, weeks, days, and even hours. The
invested capital is lost before a novice FOREX trader has time and an opportunity
for learning.
This happens for a few key reasons. At the beginning of a career, a
new FOREX trader has neither sufficient knowledge and experience nor the feeling
of danger or risk limit that should not be surpassed. Also, at the very
beginning, there are some errors that could be avoided with the proper set
up before conducting business. One of the frequent initial mistakes is insufficient
investment in FOREX trading operations. Consider the condition when
the average daily oscillation amplitude of the main currency in a percent
ratio is comparable to the margin offered to the currency investor by
banks, dealers, and brokers. (It is common nowadays to provide the
trader with such a condition when the initial margin does not exceed 2 to
4 percent of the size of the contract for the daily trade.)
If the currency oscillates 1 to 1.5 percent on a daily average, the loss
of a larger part or even the entire trading account within just a couple of
days is possible. I must mention that most novice traders partially realize
risks they will have to deal with on the currency market, but are not always
capable of precisely formulating and evaluating them. Therefore,
they often undertake incorrect actions for lowering them. Logical thinking
dictates that the simplest way of lowering the risk of potential losses is by
investing the minimum possible amount into FOREX trade. At the same time, the
idea and the plan are to increase the investment later as the necessary experience,
knowledge, and skills are acquired. From my experience, this
approach to lower the risk is virtually ineffective and even harmful. The
situation reminds me of one of my favorite anecdotes: A commission arrives
in a psychiatric hospital to inspect the facility. The commission
members see an empty swimming pool into which the patients are diving
from the diving board. The commission members ask one of the patients
why they are diving into an empty pool. The patient answers that the hospital
administration promised to fill the pool with water immediately after
the patients learn how to dive.
Usually, most novice FOREX ( Foreign Exchange Market)traders partially realize the risks they will have to deal with on the currency market, but they are not always capable of
precisely formulating and evaluating these risks.
In the same way, many novice FOREX traders try to lower the risk of losses while
they are expecting to acquire sufficient practical experience, in order to
invest larger amounts later on. They don’t understand that a small trading
account actually increases the risk of losses. By artificially decreasing
the initial investment capital, it is impossible to lower the risk. This is because
the size of the trading account and the risk degree of losing some
part of the investment capital are not proportionally related. I will illustrate
this statement with a simple example. Let’s assume there are two
accounts. One of them has invested capital of $5,000 and the other
$50,000. All other things being equal (such as minimum contract size of
$100,000), the initial margin equals 4 percent, and during one trade only,
one minimum contract is operated. It is clear that only after two or three
unsuccessful transactions (each resulting in a loss of an average of
$1,000), the smaller account is practically inoperable and requires replenishment
in order to continue participation in the market.
The larger account in this situation remains absolutely sufficient for
further operations. Restoring the loss is easier than in the small account.
Equalizing the chances to win with large and small accounts is possible
only by proportionally decreasing the minimum contract size for a small
account owner, or by the same proportional limitation of loss size. It is
practically impossible to accomplish either of these options.
The size of the trading account and the risk degree of losing some part
of the investment capital are not proportionally related.
The minimum contract size for everyone who works with a good
dealer should not be below $100,000. It can be said that this amount is a
minimum standard for small individual transactions. By putting short and
tight stops, the trader increases the chances the stops will be triggered
more often and the total loss will consist of many small losses.
Sometimes, novice traders gradually add money to the trading account.
By replacing the losses on the market, they keep the small account
instead of immediately investing the large sum in order to lower the risk.
As a result, considerable amounts are often lost, invested into the market
in small portions. One of the main reasons for these losses is insufficient
capital at the moment when it is most required. Therefore, the most frequent
disadvantage is insufficient initial investment.

Forex Market

FOREX market has some certain specific characteristics; without
knowing them and taking them into consideration, the eventual success
in speculative operations could be doubtful.
After the preliminary preparation stage is fulfilled and you think you
are ready to participate in real trade in the FOREX market, you must
choose a broker or dealer company to conduct your investment operations.
You must also determine the size of the initial investment that you
will have to transfer into the trade account opened with the chosen
dealer company. (Which I will be explaining). As is well known, this market has few specific
characteristics; without considering them, success in speculative operations
is doubtful.
Unfortunately they are totally beyond the trader’s control. Those peculiarities
result from conditions characterizing the FOREX market and
from historically developed practices and rules followed by all the participants.
Some specifications on the FOREX market include high volatility of
main currencies; the possibility of trading under conditions of low-interest
margin; and relatively high minimum contract value. These conditions
are initially considered to be advantages and mainly attract investors into
the business. However, they also have a negative side and can be considered
as an additional source of risk for a trader. Everything depends on
the point of view of the observer, as in the well-known example of the
half-empty and half-full glass.
I don’t have any doubts that, because you have made the decision to participate
in the market, you are sufficiently informed about its advantages. My
task is to point out some hidden risks and dangers. Some mistakes made
mainly by novice traders during the first stage of their careers will be described in the
upcoming posts
. They are connected with insufficient initial capital or its incorrect distribution
and management. First, the beginner should be warned about two
possible mistakes that are typical and usually made at the very beginning of
the trading career.




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Learn Electronics - Relays

In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.

In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.


In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radioteletype.In some electronic devices, it is inconvenient to place a switch exactly where it should
be. For example, you might want to switch a communications line from one branch to
another from a long distance away. In many radio transmitters, the wiring carries
high-frequency alternating currents that must be kept within certain parts of the circuit,
and not routed out to the front panel for switching. A relay makes use of a solenoid
to allow remote-control switching.
A diagram of a relay is shown in Fig. 8-8. The movable lever, called the armature,
is held to one side by a spring when there is no current flowing through the electromagnet.
Under these conditions, terminal X is connected to Y, but not to Z. When a sufficient
current is applied, the armature is pulled over to the other side. This disconnects
terminal X from terminal Y, and connects X to Z.
There are numerous types of relays used for different purposes. Some are meant for
use with dc, and others are for ac; a few will work with either type of current. A normally
closed relay completes the circuit when there is no current flowing in its electromagnet,
and breaks the circuit when current flows. A normally open relay is just the opposite.
(“Normal” in this sense means no current in the coil.) The relay in the illustration (Fig.
8-8) can be used either as a normally open or normally closed relay, depending on which
contacts are selected. It can also be used to switch a line between two different circuits.
Some relays have several sets of contacts. Some relays are meant to remain in one
state (either with current or without) for a long time, while others are meant to switch
several times per second. The fastest relays work dozens of times per second. These are
used for such purposes as keying radio transmitters in Morse code or radio teletype.


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verse

In free verse it is easier to convey a persons feelings becaus they do not have to worry about rhyme and meter. This allows the poet to write the most descriptive words and are able to get the point across in the best way to the reader. If the writer has to worry about rhyme and meter they will have to change up some words and might not be able to get the point accross the best way possible. This is the same aspect that makes poems in rhyme and meter so clever. If a writer is able to make the point that they want while keeping it in the meter and rhyme of the poem it is brillant. This adds a lot to the poem and makes the poem more attractive to many people. This gives the poem a catchiness and a hook which keeps the readers attention easier. If a poet makes his point the right way and uses the right metaphor they can write a brillant poem either way.

Little consensus on egg freezing

Freezing a woman's eggs for use later in fertility treatments doesn't seem to greatly increase birth defects or abnormalities, new data suggest. But the findings, presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) in Washington DC last week, are difficult to interpret. The field remains caught between researchers, most of whom say that the practice should still be considered experimental, and the public, which is itching to embrace the technology to extend a woman's fertile years.

Egg freezing is regarded as a positive, if costly, option for women facing illness or treatment that could truncate their fertility. But most researchers think that the procedure is not appropriate for women who wish to delay fertility for social, career or other non-health-related reasons.

“We acknowledge the interest women have in this technology,” says Marc Fritz, a professor of obstetrics and gynaecology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. But “there remain very few studies in which the safety and efficacy of this practice can be judged.”

Last week, an ASRM committee chaired by Fritz recommended that egg freezing continue to be considered experimental, and not be marketed or promoted to healthy young women.

“Every scrap of evidence comes with a dizzying number of caveats.”

Human eggs are large, fragile and filled with water, and both freezing and thawing can damage them. Freezing fertilized embryos is easier and more routine, but is less desirable for some women owing to social or ethical reasons. Some women wish to preserve eggs for the right partner, and couples can be uncomfortable with the prospect of freezing embryos.

Egg freezing, which has been in place for at least two decades, has not been used widely; doctors estimate that between 300 and 600 children have been born from formerly frozen eggs.

Safety remains one of the main concerns. At the ASRM meeting, Andrea Borini of the Centre for Reproductive Health in Bologna, Italy, reported that just 2 of 123 live births from his clinic's egg cryopreservation programme had major abnormalities: one had a nasal blockage, the other a rare developmental disorder called Rubinstein–Taybi Syndrome. (But both children had fathers with fertility problems; “we may need to look into that,” says Borini.)

Meanwhile, Ilan Tur-Kaspa of the Reproductive Genetics Institute in Chicago, Illinois, presented an analysis of more than 37 publications on children born from cryopreserved eggs. Of 555 live births, including those reported by Borini's group, he turned up just 3 other major abnormalities.

Demonstrating just how difficult the data are to interpret, Kutluk Oktay from Weill Cornell Medical College in New York says that his group tallies the number of reported births from cryopreserved eggs at closer to 300, not 555. He says that the Tur-Kaspa group missed some overlap in the studies — places where researchers re-reported earlier findings or where collaborative groups reported on each others' data. But Tur-Kaspa says that they looked closely for these instances, and says that “as far as we know there's no overlap”.

Nevertheless, the data are reassuring, Tur-Kaspa says. Five abnormalities in 550 births is a less than 1% abnormality rate — comparable to that for a natural pregnancy. The study didn't address efficacy, though. “We don't know the denominator — we don't know how many [pregnancies] were terminated,” says Oktay. “It gives you a summary of how many babies are out there and how many might have an abnormality. But none of the data we've seen out there is sufficient to say the issue is resolved.”

One problem in comparing studies is that eggs can be frozen several ways. The method Borini's group uses, known as slow-rate freezing, automatically cools the eggs in stages to subzero temperatures, in the hope that water will be forced out of the egg before it crystallizes. Another process, vitrification, is a flash-freezing process that requires more manual involvement.

Many practitioners think that vitrification is the superior technology, but few prospective studies have been done to compare the procedures. To help change that, Gary Smith, director of the Assisted Reproductive Technologies Laboratory at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has been collaborating with a group at the Huntington Centre for Reproductive Medicine in São Paulo, Brazil. At the ASRM meeting, Smith presented results from a small study in which 28 slow-frozen eggs, and 35 vitrified ones, were thawed then fertilized. Further analysis of the results indicates that for every 21 oocytes frozen via vitrification, one pregnancy could be expected. The numbers were slightly worse for slow-rate freezing: 45 frozen eggs per pregnancy.

Doubts remain about egg cryopreservation, and every scrap of evidence comes with a dizzying number of caveats because of variability both in procedures and in patients. Still, some doctors are ready to broaden its use. “We're kind of at a point in this technology where it's kind of like a teeter totter,” says Smith. “For me the important thing is the completion of studies like this that give the patients information about the reality of these technologies.”

Cetuximab, the most expensive cancer drug

Cetuximab (marketed under the name Erbitux) is a chimeric monoclonal antibody, an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor, given by intravenous injection for treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer and head and neck cancer. Cetuximab was discovered by ImClone Systems and is distributed in North America by ImClone and Bristol-Myers Squibb, while in the rest of the world distribution is by Merck KGaA.

Cetuximab faces stiff competition^{[citation needed]} from bevacizumab (Avastin), from Genentech and Roche, and from panitumumab (Vectibix), from Amgen approved by the FDA in November 2006. One of the main differences is that Cetuximab is an IgG1 antibody, and Panitumumab an IgG2 one. Their properties are not absolutely identical[1]. Cetuximab costs $30,000 for eight weeks of treatment per patient.^[1]

Contents [hide] 1 Mode of action 2 Clinical uses 2.1 Colorectal Cancer 2.2 Head and neck cancer 3 ImClone insider trading scandal 4 References 5 External links

Mode of action

Cetuximab is believed to operate by binding to the extracellular domain of the EGFR of all cells that express EGFR, which includes the subset "cancer cells", preventing ligand binding and activation of the receptor. This blocks the downstream signaling of EGFR resulting in impaired cell growth and proliferation. Cetuximab has also been shown to mediate antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).

Clinical uses

Colorectal Cancer

Cetuximab is used in metastatic colon cancer and is given concurrently with the chemotherapy drug irinotecan (Camptosar®), a form of chemotherapy that blocks the effect of DNA topoisomerase I, resulting in fatal damage to the DNA of affected cells. While there remains some scientific controversy on this, assessment for EGFR expression is required for use in Colorectal Cancer, but not in Head & Neck Cancer. It is best to refer to updated Prescription Information [2].

Head and neck cancer

Cetuximab was approved by the FDA in March 2006[3] for use in combination with radiation therapy for treating squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) or as a single agent in patients who have had prior platinum-based therapy.

One of the side effects of Cetuximab therapy is the incidence of, possibly severe, acne-like rash.

ImClone insider trading scandal

Further information: ImClone Systems#Insider trading scandal

The initial failure of ImClone Systems to prepare an acceptable FDA filing led to the infamous Martha Stewart insider trading scandal when ImClone's CEO sold ImClone shares and this information was leaked to Stewart before the FDA announced its refusal to approve the drug for public use. Martha Stewart, Samuel D. Waksal (the founder and former CEO of ImClone), and their broker were indicted, and Stewart and Waksal were sentenced to prison. ImClone shares dropped sharply in the aftermath of the insider trading scandal.

A new clinical trial and FDA filing prepared by Imclone's partner Merck KGaA ("German Merck," not to be confused with the US company of similar name) resulted in an FDA approval of the drug in 2004 for use in colon cancer.

Cells and batteries

ONE OF THE MOST COMMON AND MOST VERSATILE SOURCES OF DC IS THE CELL.
The term cell means self-contained compartment, and it can refer to any of various different
things in (and out of) science. In electricity and electronics, a cell is a unit source
of dc energy. There are dozens of different types of electrical cells.
When two or more cells are connected in series, the result is known as a battery.

Alkaline cells
The alkaline cell uses granular zinc for the negative electrode, potassium hydroxide as
the electrolyte, and a device called a polarizer as the positive electrode. The geometry
of construction is similar to that of the zinc-carbon cell. An alkaline cell can work at
lower temperatures than a zinc-carbon cell. It also lasts longer in most electronic devices,
and is therefore preferred for use in transistor radios, calculators, and portable
cassette players. Its shelf life is much longer than that of a zinc-carbon cell. As you
might expect, it costs more.

Transistor batteries
Those little 9-V things with the funny connectors on top consist of six tiny zinc-carbon
or alkaline cells in series. Each of the six cells supplies 1.5 V.
Even though these batteries have more voltage than individual cells, the total energy
available from them is less than that from a C cell or D cell. This is because the electrical
energy that can be gotten from a cell or battery is directly proportional to the
amount of chemical energy stored in it, and this, in turn, is a direct function of the volume
(size) of the cell. C or D size cells have more volume than a transistor battery, and
therefore contain more stored energy, assuming the same chemical type.
The ampere-hour capacity of a transistor battery is very small. But transistor radios
don’t need much current. These batteries are also used in other low-current electronic
devices, such as remote-control garage-door openers, TV channel changers, remote
video-cassette recorder (VCR) controls, and electronic calculators.

Lantern batteries
These get their name from the fact that they find much of their use in lanterns. These are
the batteries with a good, solid mass so they last a long time. One type has spring contacts
on the top. The other type has thumbscrew terminals. Besides keeping a lantern lit
for awhile, these big batteries, usually rated at 6 V and consisting of four good-size
zinc-carbon or alkaline cells, can provide enough energy to operate a low-power radio
transceiver. Two of them in series make a 12-V battery that can power a 5-W Citizen
Band (CB) or ham radio. They’re also good for scanner radio receivers in portable locations,
for camping lamps, and for other medium-power needs


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High performance switches and routers

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* Publisher: Wiley-IEEE Press (April 6, 2007)
* Language: English

Learn to Design High Performance Switches and Routers for Today’s Ever Growing Internet Traffic

As Internet traffic continues to grow, and demands for quality of service become more stringent, researchers and engineers can turn to High Performance Switches and Routers for tested and proven solutions. This text presents the latest developments in high performance switches and routers, coupled with step-by-step design guidance.

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The authors begin with an examination of the architecture of the Internet, as it is now and as it will be in the future. Then, they examine router architectures and their building blocks, and the challenging issues involved in designing high performance, high-speed routers. Examples of commercial high-end routers are provided.

Next, the authors discuss the main functions of the line cards of a core router, including route lookup, packet classification, and traffic management for quality of service control. The bulk of the text is then dedicated to packet switching designs. Coverage includes the various available architectures, algorithms, and technologies. Among the topics covered, readers will find detailed discussions of the latest innovations in electrical and optical packet switching. The final chapter discusses state-of-the-science commercial chipsets used to build routers. Readers learn their architecture and functions, using the theories and conceptual designs presented in the previous chapters as a foundation.

Although implementation techniques for switches and routers will continue to evolve, the fundamental theories and principles of this text will serve readers for years to come. In addition to bringing researchers and engineers up to date with the latest designs, this text, with its focus on illustrations and examples, is an ideal graduate-level textbook.

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